COUNSELING AND SPECIAL NEED EDUCATION BY sir ALMASI

EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN / YOUTH

It refer to children whose physical or learning attributes deviate from the normal ( either above or below) to such an extent that special education program is required so that they can meet their needs.

DISABILITY

Means reduce body function or loss of body organ. It is the same with impairment.

HANDICAP

Handicap is a problem that the person with disability has when interacting with the environment. The disability can cause a handicap in a certain environment but not the other.

AT RISK

At risk refer to children at a risk of acquiring disability. They are considered to have a greater chance than normal to acquire disability such as physical, mental and intellectual impairments.

LANGUAGE USE

•         The person with disability is the person first

•         Do not use the word “disability” for the person who has a physical, mental, emotional, and sensory or learning disability.

•         Do not call one a “handicap”

•         Avoid labeling them as victim, the disabled or name a condition.

•         Avoid such as “wheelchair bound” uses a wheelchair or someone with mobility impairment.

APPROPRIATE INTERACTION

•         Shake hand as with other

•         Treat adult as adults

•         If possible sit down when talking to a person on a wheel chair

•         Speak direct to the person with disability

•         Offer assistance with sensitivity and respect

POPULATION OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITY

•         Differ with the country development and the ability to provide health and social services

•         10% of the total population is commonly used, this include all level of disability.

Problem of getting correct population

•         Definition

•         Attitudes

•         Capacity for proper identification

CLASSIFICATION AND LABELING

Possible benefits

•         Can relate to diagnosis and treatment

•         Lead to “protective response”

•         Help professionals communicate

•         Basis for funding

•         Enable disability – specific advocacy

•         Make expectation more visible to the public

Possible disadvantages

•         Focuses on impairment and performance deficits

•         Lead to low expectation

•         May mistakenly acquire the role of explanatory construct

•         Suggest the problem is within the child

•         Leads to poor self concept

•         Can lead to rejection and ridicule

•         Have unnecessary permanency

•         Used to keep children out of school

•         Classification requires a lot of monetary expenditure and a lot of professional and student time

SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

Special needs education is an individually planned, systematically implemented and carefully evaluated instructions to help learner with special need achieve the greatest possible personnel self-sufficiency and success in their present and future environment.

Special needs education can be defined from many perspectives, but the major interest on this course is in educational perspective. In education special needs education is viewed in two aspects

•         Special needs education viewed as intervention

There are three kind of intervention

•         Preventive: keeping possible problem from developing into serious disability

•         Remedial programs: overcoming disability through training and education

•         Compensatory: giving the individual new ways to deal with disability

•         Special needs education viewed as education modification

Education therefore deal with it in term of

•         Who – special personnel

•         What – curriculum modification

•         Where – where the services are provided

•         How – teaching strategies and methodology used

WHO? SPECIAL PERSONNEL

•         Specially trained teachers in the different exceptionalities, these provide instructional services

•         Personnel providing related services such as

•         Audiology

•         Psychology

•         Physical therapy

•         Occupational therapy – mental illness

•         Speech language pathology

•         Transportation

•         Health services

•         Nutrition

•         Vocation

•         Rehabilitation

•         Recreation therapy

•         Orientation and mobility

•         Parent counseling

WHAT? CURRICULUM MODIFICATION

Variation of the content

•         some people need to be taught what other learn without effort

•         Some may need higher level content

•         It may be impossible for some to learn certain things due to their disability

Variation of methodology

•         Mode of communication with people with; visual impairment, hearing impairment, severe speech and language disorders, profound and multiple disabilities.

•         Teaching and learning methods

WHERE? EDUCATION PLACEMENT

•         Inclusive placement - Appropriate education for all students in a regular classroom irrespective of their special needs.

•         Continuum of placement – these range from total inclusive to total segregation

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusion movement that seeks to create schools and other institutions based on acceptance, belonging and community.

It also means educating all learners together in high-quality, age-appropriate general education classroom in their neighborhood school.

Zero rejection policy.

POSSITIVE EFFECTS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

•         Academic performance, behavior and social development- mild moderate and severe disabilities.

•         Improved self esteem, grade, on-task behavior, greater interaction with peers and a more positive attitude towards school and learning

•         Enhancement of students preparation for adulthood

•         Participate in most secondary academic programs

•         Be employed and make higher salaries

•         Live independently

•         Be socially integrated in their community

•         More likely to be engaged or married

•         Friends in the neighborhood, easier to play and visit, easier to get helpmates.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

•         Some may lead to fear, frustration, ridicule and isolation

•         Can be used as an excuse not to provide appropriate services

•         Teacher’s concerns

•         Class size

•         Completing curriculum

•         Time to meet and work with special personnel

•         Lack of appropriate expertise to handle special needs

                                                   

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONALLY

•         People with disability have existed throughout human history

•         Negative attitudes toward people with disability have been documented globally related to:- superstitious believes, ignorance

ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES (PWDs)

Change in attitude toward people with disability in stages

•         Neglect and abuse – killed or abandoned at birth or at the identification of a disability

•         Pity and institutionalization- (during the spread of Christianity). People with disability were put in asylums in inhumane conditions- given food and clothing

•         Separate education – special education institutions were established.

•         Integrated education – move towards deinstitutionalization, normalization, mainstreaming and integration.

•         Inclusion movement – internationally accepted. Should be implemented with caution

FACTORS WHICH LEAD TO PROVISION OF EDUCATION

•         Changing concepts regarding disability- change in mode of production

•         Religious humanism – value of human being irrespective of disability

•         Advancement in science and technology

•         Emergence of voluntary, charitable and service group

•         Existing inheritance laws e.g. deaf had to learn to speak to inherit

•         Emergence of school for people with disabilities.

HISTORICAL DEVELOMENT IN TANZANIA

•         Similar trends like the international but much later

•         Negative attitudes still persist and infanticide of children born with disabilities is still taking place in some areas

•         Ignorance and superstitious beliefs lead to the negative attitudes

BASIS FOR PROVISION OF SERVICES IN TANZANIA

•         General government pronouncements e.g. Arusha declaration.

•         International Year for Disabled Person (IYDP) of 1981

•         Cabinet Paper No. 19 of 1981. Protection of the dignity of the person with disability.

•         Act No. 2 of 1982 – employment

•         Act No. 3 of 1982 – care and maintenance (of the people with disabilities)

NATIONAL POLICY ON DISABILITY

In July 2004 the Ministry of Labor, Youth Development and Sports produced a policy. Its objectives are;

•         Encourage the development of people with disability

•         Empower families of people with disability

•         Review / amend legislation that are not disability friendly

•         Improve services delivery

•         To allow participation of people with disability in decision and implementation of important activities in society

•         To enable families of people with disability and the society at large to participate in decisions and implementation of important disability friendly activities

AREA INCLUDED IN THE POLICY

•         Health

•         Early intervention

•         Mental health services

•         People with disability and HIV/ADIS

•         Education

•         Skills training

•         Employment

•         Older people with disability

•         Technical aids

•         Accessibility

•         Awareness creation

•         Human rights and legal provision

•         Accident and compensation

SPECIAL GROUP

Special group refer to priority groups in provision of services, such as women with disabilities, children with disabilities and older people with disabilities.

Establishment of educational services

•         Policy for provision of services very recent-2004

•         Initiated by voluntary organization-religious group

•         Most still run or supported by voluntary agencies

•         Most services are at the primary school level

ESTABLISHMENT OF SPECIAL SCHOOLS

YEAR	DISABILITY	ESTABLISHMENT
1950	Visual impairment	Anglican church
1963	Hearing impairment	Roman catholic
1967	Physical disability	Salvation army
1982	Intellectual handicap	Tanzania government
1994	autism	Tanzania association of mental handicap

1994                                               deaf-blind                                        Tanzania government

GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS

DEFINITION:

•         Giftedness s hard to define

•         It is generally accepted that a gifted child would have the potential to perform at a level that is significantly beyond that of majority of other children of the same age, in one or more skill areas.

•         A gifted child may have the potential to become e.g. Good artist, thinker or athlete.

Giftedness

It refers to children exhibiting high performance capability in intellectual, creative and or artistic area, possessing unusual leadership capacity or excelling in specific academic field.

A number of definitions of giftedness exist focusing on different aspects:-

Feldhusen – talent as primary defining character

Pirto – having superior memory, observational power, curiosity and ability to learn

Renzulli – traits of above- average general abilities, high level task commitment and creativity

Guilford – include dimension of fluency, flexibility, originality in his definition of creativity  

IN GENERAL, THE GIFTEDNESS AND TALENTS COULD BE IN ONE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING AREAS:

1. Verbal or language (eg, reading. writing and speaking ability)

2. Logical and mathematical

3.............

4. body/movement/ psychomotor ability e.g. Dance, athletic ability

5. interpersonal eg communication and leadership ability

6. Intrapersonal e.g. reflective, self sufficient ability

Gifted or talented?

Generally giftedness and talented are differentiated as

•         Giftedness – above average general intellectual performance in all areas

•         Talented – high performance ability in a specific subject, area of activist

WHAT MAKES A CHILD GIFTED AND TALENTED?

Giftedness is due to combination of factors including:

•         inherit

•         nurturing

•         development of the child before birth

•        

CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTEDNESS AND TALENTED

•         Rapid acquire, retain and use large amount of information

•         Relate one idea to another

•         Perceive operations of large systems that may not be recognizable by the ordinary person

•         Acquire and manipulate abstract symbol

•         Solving problem by reframing the question and creating novel solutions

•         Make sound judgment ( good logical judgment)

CAUTION

•         Gifted are not perfect – talents can make them withdrawn or unmanageable

•         Need both basic and advanced content knowledge

IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT

•         Initially only IQ score used as sole means of identification. This is not the best means of identification

•         The most appropriate way use a combination of IQ scores, creative and achievement measures, parent, teacher and peers nomination and self nomination

•         there is no generally agreed definition of giftedness but most schools placement decision and most longitudinal studies over the course of individual lives have based on  IQ in th e top 2 percent for the population , that is above IQ 130

Most appropriate - use a combination of

•         IQ scores.

•         creative and achievement measure,

•         nomination of; parents, teacher and peer

•         and self- nomination

                           

FOSTERING INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Teacher and parents can foster intellectual and talents development through

•         Conveying positive and realistic expectations

•         Encouraging independence

•         Guiding constructive coping strategies providing daily opportunities to build ability and enjoy success

•         Pursuing positive social experiences for the child

Education approaches

•         Ability grouping

•         Enrichment

•         Acceleration

ABILITY GROUPING

Differentiation in placement to allow student with similar level abilities be together

•         Special school for the gifted and talented

•         Special class in a regular school

•         Resource room services in regular school

•         Regular classroom

ENRICHMENT

•         Giving experience which let students investigate of interest in a greater detail

•         Help the student to define areas of interest and independently access a variety of information and materials

•         More innovation, novelty and sophistication

•         NB: enrichment is not a “do your own thing” approach

•         Topics must be based on ongoing curriculum

ACCELERATION

•         Providing student opportunity to move through required curriculum in a faster pace

•         Acceleration option

•         Early admission to school

•         Grade skipping / acceleration

•         Content acceleration – in one or two grade

•         Curriculum compacting or telescoping

•         Concurrent enrolment in high school and collages

•         Advanced placement tests

•         Early admission to collages

•         Test out of course

TEACHER OF GIFTED CHILDREN

•         Not necessary gifted but must be flexible, curious, tolerant, competent and self-confident

CURRENT ISSUES AND FUTURE TRENDS

•         Definition of gifted is still debatable

•         Most services will originate from the regular class teacher

•         Special group are gifted individuals need special ways to identify

•         Gifted females

•         Individuals with disabilities

•         Culturally diverse groups

Final challenges: - is there need to improve societal attitudes toward gifted and talented

INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY (MENTAL RETARDATION)

There are three criteria of identifying a person with intellectual or mental retardation.

•         Sub-average general intellectual function

•         Existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior

•         Occurring during the developmental period (18 years)

Most common characteristics of children with intellectual disability

•         Poor memory

•         Slow in understanding

•         Low reasoning capability

CAUSES OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

•         Brain damage

•         Injury or illness

•         Difficult birth (labor)

•         Deprivation of oxygen in the brain

•         Chromosomal abnormalities

•         Down syndrome

•         Metabolic abnormalities

•         Phenylketonuria (PKU)

•         Galactosemia

EDUCATION APPROACHES

•                     Curriculum (what)

•                     Instructional technique (how)

•                     Education placement (where)

•                     Special trained personnel (who)

CURRICULUM (WHAT)

•         Curriculum should focus on functional skills which will help student to succeed in

•         Self-care

•         Vocational

•         Domestic e.g. cooking, cleanliness

•         Community skills e.g. greeting people, dressing

•         Leisure domains such as dancing, playing soccer

•         Functional academic – skills that can be used in everyday home, community and work environments

•         The functional skills differ from one student to another

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS (HOW)

•         Continuous search for better teacher’s methods

•         Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) of behavioral approach – produce the most consistent educational improvement

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

ABA is a systematically arranging environmental event to produce desired learning

Common features of (ABA) are:

•                     Task analysis – breaking down complex or multiple step behavior or skill into easier to teach subtask for instance eating in the restaurant: - 1. Location 2. Ordering 3.Paying 4. Eating 5. Exiting

•                      Direct and frequent measurement

•         Measuring the actual behavior of interest

•         Frequent

•         NB: the regular monthly tests or end of a course tests are usually not adequate for detecting problems and modification for program.

•                     Active student response

•         Choral responding

•         Response cards

•         Guided notes

•                     Systematic feedback – Feedback is most effective when it is:-

•          specific - toward a specific response not generalized

•         Immediate – occurring immediately after the response

•         Positive reinforcement – most effective

•         Frequent – when occurs frequently especially at the knowledge acquisition stage

•         Differential – must show what is and what is not appropriate

•                     Transferring stimulus control

•         The student while learning performs activity or skill as a response to prompting and in most an unnaturally occurring stimulus

•         Stimulus eliciting the response must be transferred to a naturally occurring one

•         Example from prompts to pick a spoon to eat to respond at being given food to eat or “karibu chakula” 

•                     Generalizing and maintenance

•         Generalization – the extent to which a student applies what is taught in one setting to other appropriate setting

•         Maintenance – the extent to which one extends learned skills over time. students with Mental Retardation do not generalize and maintain information like other children – need planned activities

EDUCATION PLACEMENT ALTERNATIVES (WHERE)

•         Special schools

•         Special class / unit

•         Regular school with assistance

•         Inclusive education

WHAT THEY CAN LEARN?

•         Mild Mental Retardation can handle up to primary level

•         Moderated MR taught communication, self help and daily living skills and self help skills

•         Profound MR are total dependent

CURRENT ISSUE AND FUTURE TREND

•         Development of laws to protect the rights of person with mental retardation

•         Recent scientific advance – reduces biologically or clinically caused Mental Retardation

•                     Genetic counseling

•                     Amniocentesis – take food from pregnant mother to a child

•                     Chorion villus sampling (CVS) – help to know if the children have disability

•                     Virus vaccine

•                     Earl screening test

•         Early identification and intensive educational services shows promise for high risk infants

•         Mental Retardation caused by psychological disadvantage – no widely used teaching to decrease e.g. malnutrition

•         Current goal of services is to make lives of people with Mental Retardation as normal as possible home in school and at work

•         No child is uneducable -  despite their intellectual disability children can learn skill which can improve their quality to life

COMMUNICATION DISORDER

COMMUNICATION – is any interaction that transmits information. Narrating, explaining, inform and expressing is major communication function.

LANGUAGE – is an arbitrary symbol system that enables a group of people to communicate. Each language has phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics that describe how users put sound together to convey meaning.

SPEECH – is a vocal response mode of language and the basis on which language develops. Normal language development follows a predictable sequence

SPEECH DISORDER – is the speech that draws unfavorable attention to itself. Interfere with ability to communicate or cause social or interpersonal problems

•         Some children have problem understanding language (Receptive language disorder)

•         Other have trouble using language to communicate (Expressive language disorder)

•         Some have language delay

NB: speech and language differences based on cultural dialects are not communication disorder. However some children may have speech and language disorder together with these dialects.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION DISORDER

•         Articulation – production of distinct language sound by vocal organ. Children has disorder when it interferes significantly with intelligibility

•         Voice – when quality, loudness or pitch is inappropriate or abnormal

•         Fluency – a performance measure that indicate both accuracy and rate with which a skill is performed e.g. stuttering, this is the most common fluency disorder

•         Language – either receptive or expressive

CAUSES OF COMMUNICATION DISORDER

•         Some speech disorder have physical (organic) causes

•         But causes of most functional disorders cannot be directly attributed to physical condition

IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNICATION DISORDER

•         Misconception – many say child will grow out of problem or the therapist can’t do anything until they can speak

•         They delay assistance and they cause problems in a child’s social, emotional and intellectual development

PROFESSIONAL ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

This aims to

•         Describe behavior – dimensions i.e. voice, articulation, languages and fluency

•         Estimate its severity – how large is the problem

•         Identify factors that are related to the problem – antecedent and consequences

•         Estimate prospects for improvement – extent of possible recovery and time frame of treatment

•         Derive a plan of treatment – specific for therapy and how best to approach student

Assessment include some or all the following components

•         Case history

•         Physical examination

•         Articulation test

•          Hearing test

•         Auditory

•         Discrimination test

•         Language development test

•         Overall language test

•         Conversation with child and language sample

•          Behavior observation of child’s languages competence and special context

PREVALENCE

•         As many as 5% may have speech impairment serious enough to warrant attention

•         Nearly twice as many boys as girly have speech impairment

•         Children with articulation problems represent the largest group of speech-language impairment

EDUCATION APPROACHES

•         Different disorder call for different remedial procedures

•         Behavioral procedures are frequently used

•         Articulation

•         May be treated by one of four common models

•         The discrimination model – emphasize on developing the child’s ability listen carefully and detect differences between similar e.g. t in take and c in cake

•         Phonological model – seeks to identify the pattern of sound production and teach the child to produce gradually more acceptable sound

•         Sensor motor model – repetitive production of sound in various contexts, special attention is may be to motor skills

•         Operant condition model – seeks to define antecedent events present specific stimuli and shape anticipatory responses by providing consequence

The four models are not mutually exclusive

•         Voice disorder

•         Voice disorder are sometimes treated medically or surgically if there is an organic cause but most involve vocal rehabilitation

•         Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) have been used to treat voice disorder

•         Fluency disorder

•         There are two way of treating fluency disorder

•         Symptom modification – try to develop the person’s ability to control the stuttering in a situation in which communication is required

•         Fluency reinforcement – helping the person to eliminate the problem by encouraging the appropriate fluency speech

•         Language disorder

•         Can be treated in several methods, some focus on pre-communication activities. Two methods encouraging language development in preschool

•         Precision teaching / learning method – ability groups in various groups and given structured lesson

•         Experimental method – mix ability groups where high ability act as models

•         Speech – language specialist are increasingly employing naturalistic interventions  to help develop and use language

•         Real or simulated activities that naturally occur in the home, school or community environments in which the child is normally functions

ALTERNATIVE AND AUGMENTATIVE COMMUNICATION

Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC) may be necessary in severe situations. AAC may be aided or unaided and consist

•         A representational symbol set or vocabulary – must match vocabulary that peers in similar situation and setting use.

•         What communication partners think is needed (teacher an parent)

•         Vocabulary the student is using in all modalities

•         Contextual demand of a specific situation

•         A means of selecting symbol

•         A means of transmitting symbol

CURRENT ISSUE AND FUTURE TRENDES

•          future communication therapists will probably provide largely consultative services and in-service training rather than direct one-to-one services

•         They will help teacher, parents and paraprofessionals work with the children while they concentrate on diagnosis, programming and direct intensive services

•         Services to be directed to older, youth and adult with untreated speech and language problem

•         Use of special devices will increase

LEARNING DISABILITY (LD)

No single universally accepted definition, most definition include three criteria

•         Severe discrepancy between potential / ability and actual achievement

•         Exclusionary clause – learning problem cannot be attributed primarily to other disability

•         Need special education to succeed in school

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DISABILITY

•                     Extremely heterogeneous group

•                     Boys outnumber girls 3:1

•                     75% are identified at primary level

•                     More have problems in reading and spelling followed with mathematics

•                     The single most defining characteristics is a specific and significant achievement deficiency in the presence of adequate overall intelligences

CAUSES OF LEARNING DISABILITY

Seldom known

Suspected causes are grouped into three categories

•                     Brain damage – minimal brain damage, not serious enough to cause generalized problem

•                     Biochemical imbalance – Feingold (1975-1976), claimed that food coloring as causes for learning disability and hyperactivity. He recommended vitamin therapy

•                     Environmental factors i.e. poor instruction, emotional disturbance and lack motivation (some attribute as many as 90% learning Disability to poor teaching – mis-taught)

IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT

•                     A diagnostic – prescriptive approach to assessment, is most common leads directly to plan of classroom instruction

•                     Normal reference test – used first process test. Test child’s ability in different perceptual and psycholinguistic area

•                     Inform inventories – are used to assess reading skills

•                     Criterion referenced test – they compare child with pre set criteria

•                     Direct and daily measurement of skills is crucial

PREVALANCE AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

•         Prevalence varies due to variation in assessment procedures and is largest categories

•         Historical Learning Disability is relatively new and is a rapidly growing field in special need education

•         Term Learning Disability first used in 1963 by S.A. Kirk to describe children who have serious learning problems in school but no other obvious disability

EDUCATION APPROACHES

•         Ability training

•         Believe child’s problem result from weakness in a particular basic ability thought necessary to perform a given task

•         Abilities can be classified as

•         Perceptual motor

•         Sensory

•         Psycholinguistic

•         Three widely known approaches are

•         Psycholinguistic training

•         Visual perceptual approach

•         Perceptual motor approach

•         Another approach is multi-sensory – based on information processing. Little research supports effectiveness

•         Skill training

•         Based on the believe that a student performance deficit is the problem, not a sign of any underlying disability

•         Remediation is based on direct instruction of precisely defined skill, many opportunities to practice and direct measurement of student progress

•         Research has shown ABA, direct instruction and precision teaching to be effective

•         Learning strategies

•         Help student guide themselves successfully through specific tasks or general problem

•         Content enhancements

•         Such as graphic organizers, mnemonics instruction, study guide and guided notes help make curriculum content accessible to student with learning disability

EDUCATION SERVICES ALTERNATIVES

•         Most spent part of time in regular classroom

•         Consultant teacher help teachers

•         Many receive in resource room

•         Few in separate, self contained classes

CURRENT ISSUES AND FUTURE TRENDS

•         Discussion and debate as to what constitutes a true learning disability

•         Most professional and advocates for student with learning disabilities do not support “full inclusion” which eliminates the continuum of services delivery options

CONLUSION

•         Learning disability is a common condition which should be handled as early as possible to avoid greater problems in later life.

EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOR DISORDER

No single widely acceptable definition

Most require behavior to deviate markedly – extremely and chronically – over time from cultural norms

U.S.A – The National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition Definition: A disability characterized by “behavioral and emotional responses in school programs so different from appropriate age, cultural and ethnic that they adversely affect educational performance”

CLASSIFICATION

No widely acceptable classification Quay’s, classification uses four clusters of behavior

•         Conduct disorder

•         Disobedient and disruptive, get into fight, bossy and temper tantrums

•         Anxiety

•         Withdrawal (personality disorder): social withdrawal, depression, feelings of inferiority, guilt, shyness and unhappiness

•         Immaturity

•         Characterized by short attention span, extreme passivity, day dreaming, preference for younger playmates and clumsiness

•         Socialized aggression

•         Marked by truancy, gang membership, theft, a feeling of pride in belonging to a delinquency subculture

Behavior disorder can be described and classified in term of their:

•         Frequency – rate (crying, fighting, sulking)

•         Duration – the amount of time spend on behavior (too long or too short)

•         Topography – physical shape or form of behavior, behavior seldom or never seen normal children (maladaptive, bizarre or dangerous)

•         Magnitude – intensity, too little (talking in a very low volume so that she can’t be heard) or too much (slumming the door)

•         Mild disorder can be handled in class and home

•         Severe disorder need special programming

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOR DISORDER

•         Score below average on IQ score and achieve academically bellow what they should

•         Many have problems developing and maintaining interpersonal relationship

GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

GUIDANCE

The following are not guidance

•         Guidance is not giving direction

•         Making decision for other people

•         Imposing views to other people

•         Carrying somebody burden

Guidance is about

•         Help people to make their own decision

•         Help people to have direction

•         Help people to create their views

EDUCATION GUIDANCE

Education guidance is the process of helping learner to adjust their situation to success.

Guidance is the help given to an individual to help him or her to use that information so as to adjust his / her situation and live successfully.

ADVANTAGES OF GUIDANCE

•         Help people to achieve, attain or reach their goals

•         Help people to find ways to live better

•         It involve advising and directing people toward success

CHARACTERISTICS OF GUIDANCE

•         Guidance is a process

•         Guidance is a continuing process, it start somewhere and end somewhere e.g. from childhood to adulthood

•         Guidance is an assistance to an individual to a process of development rather than directing them to the development

•         Guidance is the services meant to all

•         Guidance is both generalized and specialized services. It is generalized because anybody can provide guidance and it is specialized because trained people also can provide the service of guidance

COUNSELING

Counseling is the process of using information to bring about healing. It is done by exchanging information between the counselor and the client.

Counseling is the process of helping individual to accept and use the information so that he or she can solve the problem or copy with the problem. There are three types of problems, those are

•         Problems that can be solved

•         Problems that can never be solved, here the counselor helps the clients to copy

•         The problems that are seen can be solved but at the end the counselor found himself / herself helping the client to copy with the problem

Guidance can be any where even where there is no problem but counseling depend on the problem

Where to put emphasis in counseling

•         Counseling depend much on the information

•         Counseling dwells much the exploration and understanding of the problem

•         Counseling is the professional relationship between counselor and client but not emotional relationship

•         Counseling stands on the direction of the client………

PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELING

•         Counseling is a facilitation activities

•         There must assurance of confidentiality

•         Counseling must be easy and flexible relationship

•         Counseling is the non hierarchical. There is no  the one who know and those who do not know, we are all the same

•         Any problem solving process is usually based on the relationship of the client in relation other people and the environment where he/she live.

•         Clients must accept and own problem

•         Client must fully engage in the process of searching the solution

•         There must be professionalism in the knowledge and the practice

•         Counseling must be voluntary it must base on the client concern

•         No physical but psychology barrier. There not suppose to be any physical obstacle between the counselor and the client. A counselor need not to sympathize but empathize

•         Communication is the key, no counseling without communication

•         There  must be observation on clients rights

•         Right of inform concerned

•         Right of referral whenever the case is above your ability

•         Right of acceptance. To accept or not to accept to say or talk with you

GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT OF COUNSELING

European, USA then Tanzania, Counseling emerged in late   and    century

There were people who use to have the some feature of counseling by providing services and help other people but this is not considered as counseling (modern counseling). They were using hypnosis method. Hypnosis is old form of counseling which was typical used as how people use to chase demons e.g. how religious leader do. This was used before the industrial development.

In 1950s the programs of psychotherapy (counseling) started, emergence of institutionalization of keeping people with mental health emergence of Psychiatry which is dealing with people with mental problems

Sigmund Flued combined three aspects so as to develop the field of psychotherapy

•         Psychiatry

•         Philosophy

•         Medicine

Industrial revolution in Europe led to the following effects which contributed to the rise of counseling

•         Lot of social problems

•         Replacement of human labor

•         Problem of unemployment

•         Family problems and marital problems

•         Stress emerged in the societies

These led to transition for psychotherapist (people dealing with mental problem) to deal with social issue.

Occurrence of the world Wars busted the practices of counseling due to the emergence many psychological and social problems

Later counseling inter in education, vocation and training institution e.g. early Universities like Harvard started to train people how to practice counseling

Counseling in educational institution led development of psychological test in to understand the extent to which somebody is addicted with a particular problem

Counseling also developed to voluntary sectors such as organization, National Marriage Counseling 1940s

Problem like deaths, loss, robbery, marital, child abuse contributed to the development of counseling globally

Factors that gave a fast speed of spread of guidance and counseling in Britain and USA (1970s)

•         Issue of identity problem, lack of self reflection

•         The spread of caring and people professionals, the professionals that deal with people e.g. nursing, teaching, medicine and social work.

•         The rise of entrepreneur spirit. People started to develop counseling institution so as to get profit. They decided to make counseling a professional service for gaining money.

•          Counseling got publicity in the medias

•         The increase of lack of emotional and social support system in the societies. These resulted to street children etc. spread of fragmented societies

Generally the spread of counseling as the field of profession was largely caused by social pressures and social demands and not research. It was due to change of social structure and social mobility.

COUNSELING IN TANZANIA

Before the development of the modern counseling in the country there were people who were providing help to the people e.g. traditional healer (which doctors) priests. They were providing help to family and marital problem

The use of the respected people in the society or family such as uncle, aunt and old man

All the societies had their own way of identifying who can provide assistance in the society

In 1980s, the emergence of HIV/AIDS led to development of modern counseling in Tanzania. People were trained to provide post counseling the people affected by the disease, widows. They used the word “ushauri nasaha” which was directed translation from the word counseling

Later people come to understand that counseling is not only for dealing with HIV/AIDS problems but also other psychosocial problems.

WHY DO WE NEED COUNSELING IN TANZANIA

•         Problem like adolescence issue e.g. sexuality

•         Terminal diseases. These are diseases on which people suffer for a long period of time and their possibility of cure is minimal.

•         Loss of life , materials

•         Marital and relationship issue

•         Educational, academic and carrier issue.

•         Socio-economic issue

•         Poverty

•         Cultural problems

•         Copying problems

•         Parenting problem

COUNSELING METHODS AND SKILLS

There are several methods of providing counseling and is still debated by the psychotherapists. Currently there are three techniques of counseling.

•         Counselor centered technique

•         Client centered technique

•         Eclectic technique

COUNSELOR CENTERED TECHNIQUE

Counselor centered technique is also known clinical technique, active approach, directive technique or prescriptive technique. It was founded by E.G. William

The counselor use his or her training expertise experience to prescribe remade to bring about solution to the problem

CLIENT CENTERED TECHNIQUE

Client centered technique is also known as non-directive or permissive technique. It was founded by Karl Rogers.

The client is the hub, the focal point or centre for counseling. The all process of counseling is focusing on the client. It is for the client to provide information not the counselor.

Fundamental / bases of client centered technique

•         The client seek help from the counselor voluntary

•         The two agree on the terms on how they will go on with the process of counseling

•         The client must accept to own problems

•         The client should agree to talk freely and exhaust

•         The client must not expect readymade solution

What happen in the session?

•         Client takes active roles

•         Client gives some insights to help of the counselor

•         Clients make decision on the action to be taken

•         Counselor apply many counseling skill to help the client talk more and more because without their information counselor cannot provide help

•         The ability of the counselor to use many skills to help them talk and freely talking help to reach at ah! Stage. It helps the client to realize their irrational thinking to the rational thinking. Help the clients to find a best option from other many option

ECLECTIC TECHNIQUE

Eclectic technique is also known as selective. It founded by F.C Thorn

Eclectic the combination of the two techniques (clients centered and counselor centered), because all technique have their weakness. It also referred to selection as you practice.

Counselor is given option to choose a best way that can help the client from all technique. It is most used technique because it is more flexible depending on the situation and the nature of the problem.

COUNSELING SKILLS

Counseling skills refer to skills that a counselor should have in order to practice counseling. There are two categories of counseling skills

•         Basic skills

•         Supportive skills

BASIC SKILL

It is abbreviated by the word

•         R – Relationship building – the counselor should build good relationship with the client.

•         E – Exploration of the problem – the counselor should know what the problem is.

•         U

•         N – Understanding of the problem – if it is mental, psychological or physical problem

•         D

•         A – Action plan – decide what should be done

SUPPORTIVE SKILL

Supportive skills used to support the basic skills

•         R – Relax manner – the counselor should relax in order to help the client to relax too

•         O – Open posture – the counselor is not allowed to sit in closed posture but in open posture

•         L – Leading forward toward the client – the counselor should not lead back to the client

•         E – Eye contact – the counselor should have eye contact because counseling also need non verbal expression, the counselor should be conscious with the cultural of the client

•         S – Sit near the client – the counselor is not allowed to be too much far or too much close to the counselor

NON VERBAL SKILLS

Non verbal skills refer to skills that do not involve your mouth and vocal code. For instances eye contact, attending body language

Attending body language help to give information to the client whether the counselor have tired or ready to listen him or her. Attending body language include

•         Leading forward to the client

•         Impression facial expression

•         Nodding

•         Open posture

•         Close proximity

VERBAL SKILLS

•         Minimal encourager – are the verbal sign used by the counselor to help the client to talk more e.g. ah!, Oh!, Good, yes

•         Paraphrasing – to re-speak on what have been said in few words to show that you have understood what have been said

•         Reflection of feeling – show the client that you understand their situations by talking. How painfully they are, where they pass through e.g. I understand where you pass through, I feel what you are facing.

•         Summarizing – summarizing what they have spoken by your words to show that you have understood what they have said and what you have seen them.

•         Confronting – unmask the client, the counselor confronts the clients if they are expressing a behavior of distortion, the counselor can blame the clients in order to confront them also the counselor need to be conscious to the clients’ sensitive

•         Self disclosure – it happen when the client brought the problem which has seen to happen in your life. Help the client to use the methods you had used to overcome that problem. Make sure that you disclosure something that is true

THE QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE COUNSELOR

•         Empathy – the counselor is not allowed to sympathize on the client problem but to empathize on them.

•         Warm – ability of the counselor to create warm, caring environment, good environment to the client

•         Respect – ability of the counselor to respect their client and their problems

•         Genuineness – everything  you do such as providing help, let it be honest or genuine

•         Confidentiality – the ability of the counselor to ensure client that, all things that are going to happen during counseling will be confidential

•         Trust – trust everything that your client tells you. The more you trust your client the more they will trust you

HOW SHOULD THE COUNSELOR BE ACCORDING TO BACP (British Association Counseling and Psychotherapy)

•         Empathy

•         Sincerely

•         Integrity

•         Resilience or tolerance

•         Respect

•         Humanity

•         Competence

•         Fairness

•         Wisdom

•         Courage

COUNSELING INTERVIEW

Counseling interview refer to the session from the time when a counselor start to talk with the client to the end.

PRELIMINARY / INITIAL ISSUE TO BE CONSIDERED IN COUNSELING INTERVIEW

•         Choice of physical surroundings – the environment that will make both the counselor and the client feel comfortable, friendly and which will ensure confidential and privacy in counseling process

•         Sitting arrangement – avoid physical barrier between the counselor and the client, sitting style should be equally (not hierarchical). E.g. use of similar chairs so as to ensure equity and friendship

•         Equipments – like table, chairs, mobile phone, drinking water should be available

•         Sitting – the counselor should sit near / closer to the door and the door should be ajar (a little bit open) for the safety.

•         Communication – counselor should use simple and clear communication whether it is verbal or non verbal. The counselor should communicate exactly and effectively if there is any communication breakdown makes sure you clear by asking questions.

PARTIES OF COUNSELING SESSION

•         Introduction

•         Main body

•         Closure

INTRODUCTION

•         Introduction requires 5 to 10 minutes where by the counselor makes the client easier and help them to cool down

•         Is the time where the counselor building rapport (a close relationship with the client). By knowing their names, where they come from and assess their mental and physical condition

•         The introduction depend on whether the session is free appointed first interview, follower free appointed interview or drop in first interview.

•         Free appointed first interview – the coming in of the client is not for the first time. The counselor knows his or her information before meeting. The counselor should use simple questions so as to get more familiar with the client.

•         Follower free appointed interview – is where the counselor knows the client exactly. The counselor should help the client to keep time, appreciate them to come on time e.g. thank you for come on time. Make a little bit recover on what have been addressed on the last time, what options that have been given to the client and how she or he has went through those options.

•         Drop in first interview – the counselor do not know the client neither the client know the counselor. The counselor should introduce him / herself to the clients this will make the counselor feel to introduce himself or herself to the counselor. The counselor should walk toward the door and open it for them and invite them, show where to sit and help them to come down so that they can talk.

MAIN BODY

•         This is where the counselor spends much of the time in conversation.

•         Action plan

•         Make use of the skills and expertise

•         Explore a lot of strategies to help the client to make decision on the best alternative

•         Make sure you really understand the problem of the clients

•         Apply as much as possible your counseling skills

CLOSURE

•         Counselor use the remaining minutes to prepare the client for the closure so that if they have more questions they can ask.

•         The counselor should ensure the client that they can have another session

•         It is advised to us 45 to 90 minutes in counseling

•          Give the client some assignments to do before you meet again

•         Don’t make the session too long or too short.

TYPES OF COUNSELING INTERVIEW

•         Individual interview / one to one interview – it involve the counselor and the client who can be free appointed first interview, follower free appointed interview or drop in first interview

•         Group interview – the counselor meet with many clients can be between 6 to 15 clients at the same time.

FEATURES OF GROUP COUNSELING

•         The group must be compatible as possible such as youth, students, widows, single parents

•         The group must have common problem. The problem that unite these people together

•         The clients must be interested to work as a group. If any is not interested to work as a group he or she should be excluded

•         The group counseling session must publicize in the community, media, social gathering like religions. The information given should explain the following

              

•         The main goals of your discussion

•         What people will benefit

•         how do they access the service (by payment or free entrance)

HOW TO ORGANIZE A GROUP COUNSELING INTERVIEW

Case study on community problem

•         conduct a research and observation to identify the problem that facing the community

•         analyze data, which can assist in grouping people with the same problem e.g. poverty, witchcraft, diseases

•         Identification of the groups or categories. Start with the problem which have more effects in the community

METHODS OF DOING GROUP COUNSELING

•         BRAINSTORMING

Brainstorming is effective when the group is united together with high level of tolerance among the member in the group. This method can be used in problems like relationship problem, carrier problem and academic problems

The counselor should facilitate all clients to involve in intensive discussion but not to be dominated by few clients

•         CASE STUDY DISCUSSION

This method used in discussing the specific problem and the group work as the unity

•         FREE GROUP DISCUSSION

The discussion is controlled by the group, the counselor remain as the observer and guiding the discussion

•         ROLE PLAY OR SIMULATION AND GAMES

The counselor takes the case that is to be discussed and chose the character among the clients and gives them roles to play e.g. father, mother, and children. The chosen characters act as guided by the counselor. At the end clients will learn according to the role played

CATEGORIES OF COUNSELING

•         PREVENTIVE COUNSELING

Preventive counseling is done where the counselor anticipate or forecast the problem and take some measures to avoid or reduce the intensity of the repercussion / consequence

•         CURATIVE COUNSELING

Curative counseling is used when the problem have been occurred. Therefore the counseling come for the purpose of resolving or cures the problem

•         CRISIS COUNSELING

Crisis counseling is used when the problem have occurred suddenly or abruptly e.g. death here the counselor must respond to the client immediately after the occurrence of the problem.

Characteristics of crisis

•         The client can come without any appointment

•         Sometime the counselor is forced to go to them before they come to meet him or her

•         Counselor should assess every available resource to help the client e.g. by asking their parents, neighbors, friends

•         The help should be provided directly without wastage of time e.g. security measures

 PREPARED BY Sir ALMASI MICHAEL

                                                        0758587116.